In the Tsardom of Russia, after the death of Feodor I in 1598, the Rurik dynasty that had ruled the country for 700 years was extinguished. Then starts a period of troubles, as there are many pretenders to the title of Tsar competing for the throne, including impostors who claim to be of the Rurik lineage. Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth also intervened, and each supported their candidate for the throne. After a victory, the Polish prince enters Moscow and becomes the new Tsar. But soon revolts break out, and he’s driven out. Representatives from all over the country gather to elect a new tsar. They choose to place on the throne Michael Romanov, a young man from among the older, aristocratic families called the Boyars. He is the first of a new, very long dynasty. But he inherits a devastated country, ruined by years of wars and instability. Groups of looters plunder the countryside, while Polish and Swedish armies still occupy Russian territories. To restore the state, Michael I set two objectives: to ensure peace and to stabilize the state’s finances. At first, the Tsar, without an army capable of fighting, negotiates and obtains a truce with Sweden, and then with Poland. He is forced to give up many territories, losing access to the Baltic Sea. On the other hand, in the distant lands to the east, Cossack explorers progress without much resistance, seizing territories and building new outposts. They subjugate the local tribes and force them to pay a fur tax. In 1639, explorer Ivan Moskvitin reached the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Further south, explorations around the Amur River led to the first contact with China. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev became the first Russian to cross what would later be called the Bering Strait. Throughout the country, the numerous taxes intended to fill state coffers provoked revolts. In response, Tsar Alexis re-establishes order, notably by reinforcing the serfdom of the peasants, who represent the largest source of income for the State. The peasants are no longer allowed to leave their lords, who are given all rights over them, with the lords also now responsible for collecting taxes on behalf of the state. In the West, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is the result of the union, in 1569, of Poland and Lithuania, which had conquered a large part of the territories of the former Kievan Rus during the Mongol domination. These lands, mostly Orthodox, are a space of relative freedom for the peasants and Cossacks who live there. However, the local Polish nobility wants to convert them to Catholicism and make them serfs. An armed revolt breaks out, attacking the Polish, as well as the Jews, who are massacred because they were in charge of collecting taxes. In Moscow, Patriarch Nikon, the highest representative of the Orthodox Church in the country, wants to reform the Church and return to the original Byzantine texts. However many Orthodox refuse to abandon the Russian tradition and distance themselves from the Church, causing a schism. The Old Believers will gradually be suppressed. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia offers protection to the Cossack revolt, which provokes a war. Thirteen years later, Russia wins and takes over a large territory that it calls Little Russia. The rights of the Cossacks there will be progressively suppressed. On the shores of the Caspian Sea, a Cossack revolt breaks out, bringing together peasants on the run, old believers, and minorities. They go up the Volga, attacking nobles and administrative authorities, and gaining the support of the population. Finally, in Simbirsk, the poorly equipped rebel army is defeated. In the Far East, tensions rise with China for control of the Amur River basin. To avoid a war, Russia abandons its ambitions in the region. But the new Tsar Peter I is much more interested in the West. He organized an embassy of 200 people, which he joined incognito, to discover and learn more about the European powers, especially the Dutch Republic, which is a great maritime power. The Tsar spends several months there, working in the shipyards. On his return, he wants to equip his country with a modern military fleet. But to do so, he has to gain access to the Baltic Sea, and thus defeat the powerful Sweden, which is blocking him. After joining an anti-Swedish coalition with Denmark and Saxony, the Russian army besieges Narva but is quickly routed by the Swedish army. The latter then moves towards Poland and Saxony, giving Peter I a much-needed respite to reinforce his army and resume the offensive. After a victory at the mouth of the Neva River, he decides to found a new city, which he names St. Petersburg. In 1707, the Swedish army, having dominated its enemies, left Saxony and marched toward Moscow. But while Swedish reinforcements and supplies arrive from Riga, King Charles XII decides, against all odds, to branch off to Little Russia, where he counts on the support of the Cossacks, and the abundance of wheat. Peter I takes advantage of this to intercept the reinforcing army. In the south, after a harsh winter, the Swedish army is finally defeated. Charles XII took refuge in the Ottoman Empire, which provoked a short war, but without success, for Russia. In 1712, Peter I made Saint Petersburg the new capital of Russia. But a large part of the population is opposed to his policy of the Westernization of the country, including his heir apparent, son Alexis. The latter is put on trial and dies, probably under torture. In 1721, a peace treaty was signed with Sweden. The Tsarate of Russia wins and becomes the Russian Empire. Emperor Peter the Great got what he wanted; Russia was now firmly established on the shores of the Baltic Sea and turned towards Europe, where it was now a major player. In 1725, Peter the Great died without an heir son. In 1730, Anna, Peter's niece, becomes the Empress. She dreams of having access to the Black Sea. But for this to happen, the Crimean Khanate, and its powerful Ottoman ally, must be defeated. A Russian army enters Crimea and a second one into Moldavia. Austria joins the offensive but without success. Fearing that it could turn out badly, the Russian armies withdrew, and despite the heavy losses incurred, Russia ceded back the conquered territories, except for the city of Azov. After the death of Anna, Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great, seizes power. At the same time, in the East, Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator working for Russia, discovers and explores the coasts of America. On the European side, after the War of the Austrian Succession, an intense diplomatic game upsets the traditional alliances. Great Britain moved closer to Prussia, while Russia allied itself with Austria and France. The Seven Years' War breaks out, and Russian armies enter Prussia, but they face fierce resistance. After years of fighting, while victory is imminent for Russia, Elizabeth dies. Her nephew Peter III comes to the throne and, being a great admirer of Prussia immediately stops the war. Despite the enormous losses, he returns all the occupied territories to Prussia, without compensation, which does not go down well in Russia. A few months later, Peter III is the victim of a coup d'état fomented by his wife, Catherine, who seizes the throne despite her German origins. She begins her reign by strengthening Russian influence in Poland, which provokes a rebellion there. The Ottoman Empire, after incidents on its border, declares war on Russia. This satisfies the empress, who also dreams of having access to the Black Sea, but also of creating a Greek neo-Byzantine state that would control the straits leading to the Mediterranean Sea. Russian troops enter Bucharest, while a military fleet from the Baltic Sea destroys the Ottoman fleet. Fearing an Austrian intervention against the new Russian domination in the Balkans, Prussia and Russia offer Austria a share between the three powers of one-third of the Polish lands. In Russia, a Cossack insurrection involving peasants and many subjugated peoples gains momentum, forcing Catherine II to send forces there. The same year, a peace agreement is signed with the Ottoman Empire. Russia occupied Crimea militarily, but in 1783 it violated the treaty and annexed the territory. Many settlers arrive there, driving out the Muslim population. The military port of Sevastopol is founded. Then, after a new victory against the Ottomans, the port of Odesa is established. In the north, Poland is now entirely partitioned between its neighbors. Russia obtained many Slavic and Baltic territories, but the country is now a neighbor of two great, Germanic powers. In 1796, Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, died. In France, the revolution started in 1789. This, followed by the execution of King Louis XVI, made the European monarchies fear the spread of revolutionary ideas throughout the continent. In 1798, Russia joined an anti-French alliance. A Russian-Austrian army drives the French out of Italy, while a Russian-Ottoman fleet seizes the Ionian Islands. In the Caucasus, Russia and Persia quarrel over control of the region, which leads to war. In 1805, Alexander I joined the 3rd coalition against Napoleon’s France, but his army was defeated at Austerlitz. Two years later, Napoleon moved onto the former territories of Poland. The Russian armies are again defeated, forcing Alexander I to sign a peace treaty. Napoleon led the way, creating the Duchy of Warsaw, and forging an alliance with Russia, which committed itself to respect the continental blockade against the United Kingdom. With peace assured with Napoleon, Russia can concentrate on other fronts, against Persia, the Ottoman Empire, or Sweden for control of Finland. In 1808, Napoleon, having troubles on the Iberian Peninsula, feared that Austria would take advantage of this to attack him. He then invites Alexander I to Erfurt to ensure their alliance and his support. But Alexander doesn’t cooperate. Napoleon believes that he cannot count on Russia, and so prepares to invade the country. In June 1812, Napoleon and his armies entered Russia, hoping for a quick victory. But the Russian armies avoid confrontation and retreat, forcing the French to go far inland. At the gates of Moscow, a bloody battle finally takes place, after which the Russians withdraw, leaving Moscow to the French. But the city is deserted and burned. Napoleon desperately tries to get a peace treaty signed, but Alexander doesn’t follow through. Finally, Napoleon is forced to turn back, while an exceptionally harsh winter decimates his army. Harassed by the Russian armies, Napoleon barely managed to flee the country with a small part of his army. But Alexander I continues the war in Europe, and he is joined by Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, while the French are driven out of Spain by the English, Portuguese, and Spanish armies. Alexander I and his allies enter Paris and obtain the abdication of Napoleon. In Vienna, the victors meet to draw new borders for Europe and restore the monarchies. Alexander I, having played a major role in the fall of Napoleon, acquired a large part of the Duchy of Warsaw, which retains a certain autonomy. In addition, that same year, he created the Holy Alliance, whose mission was to ensure peace in Europe. Russia triumphs on the European level. Meanwhile, in America, the fur trade develops under the influence of the Russian-American Company. After the death of Alexander I, successor Constantine refuses to take the throne. His brother Nicholas then becomes the new emperor. But as soon as he takes power, he narrowly avoids a military coup. In response, he strengthens the autocracy and surveillance in the country. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire is undermined by a Greek insurrection. Russia takes advantage of this and provokes a war. The Russian army was getting dangerously close to Constantinople, but Nicholas I knew that France, and especially the United Kingdom, were not happy with the rise of Russian power, and would not let the capital be taken. After the signing of a peace treaty, Russia consolidates its presence on the Black Sea. In 1830, several revolutions broke out in Europe, including in Poland, where the Russian army intervened violently, provoking discontent in the continent. The emperor then strengthens his alliances with Prussia and Austria and obtains a defensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire. With his western borders secured, Nicholas I can concentrate on the Caucasus Mountains, where many mainly Muslim peoples fiercely resist the Russian invaders. In Europe, the Holy Alliance is challenged by the rise of nationalism. Everywhere, people rise, aiming for more autonomy. Fearing the spread of revolutionary ideas in Russia, Nicholas I supports his allies. The Austrian Empire, on the verge of implosion, receives precious help from the Russian army to quell the Hungarian revolution. After new tensions, a war breaks out against the Ottoman Empire. The Russian armies win on land and sea. But this time, France and the United Kingdom intervened and declared war on Russia. For their part, Prussia and Austria, despite their alliances, remained neutral. The Russian troops withdraw from the Balkans. In the Black Sea, the Franco-British fleets dominate with their recent steamships. After a military landing, the better-equipped coalition armies beat the Russians. After the death of Nicholas I and the peace signed by Alexander II, Russia realized that it was far behind in development in the military, economic, industrial, and agricultural spheres. The new emperor decides to reform and modernize the whole country. He first accelerates the development of railroads to facilitate access to remote regions and their resources. In the Far East, taking advantage of China's decline, Russia pushes back the border to the Amur River. Alexander II then frees peasants from serfdom, but they are now linked to their communities and must go into debt to buy back the land they cultivated. The emperor also reforms the army, the educational system, governmental administration, and the justice system. In Central Asia, Russian conquests are bringing the country closer to the rival British Empire. Fearing a new war against the latter, the emperor decided to sell Alaska to the United States, considering the region too difficult to defend. In the Balkans, insurrections undermine the Ottoman Empire. Russia takes advantage of this, and after a new war, imposes the independence of new states. However, the European powers refused Russian supremacy in the region and met in Berlin to review the treaty. In Russia, the population sees this as a German betrayal. In addition, the situation is complicated for Alexander II. His numerous reforms are causing discontent. The peasants don’t have total freedom, and the nobles have lost their privileges. The development of industry gives rise to a working-class community whose working conditions are very difficult. Finally, the Russification of the empire is done at the expense of the many minorities that represent a third of the population. Revolutionary movements rise. Some become radicalized, and Alexander II becomes the target of attacks. After several failed attempts, the emperor was assassinated in 1881. Jews are accused of being involved in the attack, which provoked a wave of pogroms throughout the country, and pushed millions of Jews to flee to Europe and the United States. The new emperor Alexander III wants to revise his father's reforms and restore a strong autocracy. In Europe, after the signing of an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, Russia became increasingly isolated. The country then approaches France, also isolated since its defeat against Germany in 1871. The two countries sign an alliance. In Russia, the construction of a trans-Siberian railway opens the way to the Far East. In 1895, expansionist Japan defeated China. The new emperor Nicolas II took advantage of China's weakness to obtain authorization to build a railroad that crosses Manchuria. But in China, a revolt undermines the Qing Dynasty, and an international alliance intervenes to quell the revolt. The Russian army then occupies Manchuria, which provokes the discontent of Japan, which has its eye on this territory. In 1904, war broke out and turned to the advantage of the Japanese, who dominated the Russian armies. The Baltic military fleet, after several months of navigation, is defeated by the Japanese fleet. This Russian defeat provokes a revolution. Workers organize strikes, peasants attack the property of nobles, and minorities demand more autonomy. Finally, a railway workers' strike paralyzes the country. With his back to the wall, Emperor Nicholas II is forced to accept the establishment of a State Duma, that is, a legislative assembly, which weakens the autocracy. After bloodily crushing the last revolutionary pockets, the country's economy is revived. The production of iron, coal, and oil increases, which boosts industrial development. The standard of living rises, and the country modernizes. Moreover, a rapprochement takes place with the United Kingdom to delimit the zones of influence in Central Asia. France, the United Kingdom, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, which opposed the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. A total war seems inevitable. The powers are preparing for it. In the Balkans, the heir of Austria is assassinated by a Bosnian Serb nationalist. In retaliation, Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, declared war on Serbia. Russia, which wants to protect the Slavs in the Balkans, decrees general mobilization, and in a few days, all of Europe enters into war. St. Petersburg, whose name has a strong German sound, is renamed Petrograd. In London, the members of the Triple Entente agree not to sign a separate peace. The Russian armies are pushed back from East Prussia but manage to move into Galicia. The Ottoman Empire joins the Triple Alliance and closes the straits, isolating Russia completely. In 1915, while the western front was frozen in trenches, Germany turned to Russia, where it seized many territories, but here too, the front is frozen. Millions of refugees wander the country, while the war effort concentrates 80% of Russia’s industry, to the detriment of civilian needs. Inflation and rationing put the population to the sword as the war drags on. The emperor and his wife become increasingly unpopular, especially as they are under the influence of the mysterious Rasputin, who is considered a charlatan. In Petrograd, strikes turn into uncontrollable armed revolts. Emperor Nicholas II is finally forced to abdicate, which marks the end of the Romanov dynasty. A provisional government managed by the State Duma takes over. It tries to ease tensions but chooses not to sign a separate peace with Germany. The war continues. The discontent within the population, too. A few months later, during a second revolution, the Bolsheviks, with Lenin at their head, seized power and directly signed a cease-fire with Germany.
