We start in 1481 in Portugal. The new king John II takes advantage of the creation of the caravel, a more maneuverable ship able to take on the oceans, to accelerate explorations along the African coasts in search of new commercial routes. The Spanish monarchies follow suit, exploring westward and reaching the coasts of America. Portugal and Spain then agree to share the new world by drawing a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Spain can claim the new lands discovered west of this meridian, Portugal to the east. In 1497, Vasco da Gama crossed the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean, opening a new route to the rich spice trade. Two years later, Pedro Álvarez Cabral in turn goes to the Indies. After leaving the Cape Verde Islands, the expedition moved away from the coast of Africa to take advantage of the sea currents and discover new lands located east of the Meridian of Tordesillas. The coasts are inhabited by the Tupi-Guaraní, semi-nomadic people who practice agriculture, while the interior of the land is populated by hunter-gatherer societies. The Portuguese discover a tree whose wood color is red like an ember, or “brasa” in Portuguese. The tree is then called the Brazilwood and will give the name Brazil to the new colony. The Portuguese quickly found trading posts to exploit brazilwood, which is used to produce dyes for the textile industry. The indigenous peoples cut and supplied this wood in exchange for weapons and European products. As the explorations continued, more and more trading posts, called feitorias, were founded. However, apart from brazilwood, no other resource interested the Portuguese colonists, who turn instead to spices from Asia, and gold and slaves from Africa. The Portuguese king then tries to accelerate the colonization of Brazil by dividing the territory into “captaincies”, and by offering land to Portuguese settlers who are called “Donatário”. At first, only Pernambuco is of interest because the climate there is ideal for growing sugar cane, sugar being an expensive and prized resource in Europe. In 1549, the Portuguese king created the Governorate of Brazil and appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor. The latter leaves for Brazil and finds the new capital Salvador. In addition, Portugal sends Jesuits to convert the indigenous peoples to Catholicism. They move inland but spread deadly European diseases, to which the locals are not immune. Further south, the French attempted an incursion by founding a colony called “France Antarctique”. But they are chased away by the Portuguese, who then settle in the same bay and find Rio de Janeiro. In the north of the colony, sugar cane cultivation developed rapidly, which led to a lack of manpower. Portugal then compensates for this shortage by importing slaves from Africa. In 1580, after the death of King Henry I, King Philip II of Spain claimed and then seized the Portuguese throne, founding the Iberian Union. While Portugal retains some autonomy, it is now challenged by increasing competition from the rising powers of Western Europe, such as the United Provinces, France, and England, which take over its colonies around the world. In 1612, French troops landed in the very north of Brazil to found St. Louis, but again they were driven out. A few years later, the Dutch briefly seized Salvador. At the same time, around São Paulo, large wheat plantations are being developed. The colonists then organize expeditions into the land to capture indigenous people to exploit them on their plantations. This causes tensions with the Jesuit communities that are looted and destroyed. Further north, the Dutch succeeded in settling in Pernambuco, where they found “Dutch Brazil”, whose capital Recife is renamed Mauritsstad. They extend their territory and develop sugar production. In 1640 in Lisbon, an insurrection drives out the Spanish power. Portugal regains all its autonomy and tries to regain control of its colonies. In 1654, the last Dutch were driven out of Brazil. While Brazil is the largest sugar producer in the world, competition is rising in the Caribbean, which causes prices to fall. But from the end of the 17th century, the colonists discover that the inland areas of southern Brazil are rich in gold, which quickly attract many workers. Gold production explodes. Annual maritime convoys are organized to bring the gold from Rio de Janeiro to Lisbon, which attracts the interest of European powers. During the War of the Spanish Succession, France organizes a military expedition against Rio de Janeiro. The city is looted and then liberated in exchange for a huge gold ransom, which is brought back to France. Later, diamonds are also discovered inland, which further accelerate the colonization of the region and pushes the Portuguese to explore further and further inland in search of new riches, reaching the Spanish colonies. To avoid border conflicts, Spain and Portugal agreed in 1750 to establish a new border. In 1763, as Brazil reached its peak of gold production, the center of power was moved south, and Rio de Janeiro became the new capital of Brazil. In addition to gold and sugar, the colony tries to diversify its income by developing cotton production, and then, gradually, coffee. A large part of the exports end up going to the British ally, which starts its industrial revolution. In France, Napoleon, who had seized power, dominated Europe. Only the United Kingdom still resists him. Napoleon then decides to impose a continental blockade and invade his greatest ally, Portugal. A Franco-Spanish army enters the country, forcing Crown Prince John to flee to Brazil with his family and the government. In Rio de Janeiro, he strengthened the alliance with the United Kingdom by opening its ports to increase trade. In 1815, after the fall of Napoleon, the prince chose to remain in Brazil and to give the colony a status equivalent to Portugal by creating the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. Further south, in the Eastern Bank, Spain is challenged by independence movements. Fearing that these would spread, the now King John VI decided to invade the territory. But at the same time in Portugal, revolts break out for the return of the king to the country, and for the establishment of a parliamentary monarchy. John VI is forced to return to Lisbon, but before doing so he appoints his son Peter as regent of Brazil during his absence. In Lisbon, the new congress wants the return of Prince Peter to Portugal and the return of the status of colony for Brazil. In reaction, on September 7, 1822, Peter proclaimed the independence of the Empire of Brazil and became its emperor. In 1824, Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil. The new country sets up an electoral system that is reserved for the richest, then quickly signs an alliance with the United Kingdom to maintain commercial privileges. In addition, the United Kingdom is called in as a mediator to settle the conflict between Brazil and the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata over control of the Cisplatine Province. In 1828, an agreement was reached, and both countries recognized the independence of a buffer state that is called Uruguay. In the following years, Brazil's economy becomes more and more dependent on the cultivation of coffee. To increase production, the country continued to import slaves from Africa on a massive scale, despite the ban on the transatlantic slave trade imposed by the European powers. Finally, in 1850, after having imported 4 million slaves, the country abolished the trade. In Uruguay, since independence, many civil wars have torn the country apart. In 1864, Brazil decided to intervene militarily, and officially to restore peace. The country allies itself with the camp of the Colorado Party, which opposes the Blanco Party, itself allied with Paraguay. The latter then reacts by organizing raids on Brazil and violating Argentine territory to go and fight in Uruguay. After the victory and the rise to power of the Colorado Party, the latter allied itself with Brazil and Argentina to fight Paraguay. A very deadly war follows, at the end of which Paraguay loses many territories. In 1888, Brazil was the last country in America to abolish slavery. 700,000 slaves are freed. In the north of the country, a large part of the freed slaves continue to work in the fields for a meager salary, while in the south, many migrate to working-class areas of the big cities. Moreover, the landowners receive no compensation, which provokes their anger. The Emperor is more and more contested. On November 15, 1889, a military coup overthrew the Emperor, and proclaimed the Republic of Brazil. A new flag is created, and Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca becomes the first president of the country. Coffee production is now so important that it accounts for more than half of the country's exports, which supplies 3⁄4 of the world's coffee. In addition, rubber production is expanding and drawing many workers far into Amazon lands. Finally, São Paulo has become the economic heart of the country. The city attracts many migrants, mainly European, but also from the Ottoman Empire and Japan. Meanwhile, Rio de Janeiro is modernized on the model of European cities. The inhabitants of the working-class neighborhoods are driven out and take refuge in the favelas on the hillsides. In 1903, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs, who is nicknamed the Baron of Rio Branco, obtained, diplomatically and peacefully, a Bolivian territory in the Amazon. The following year he came to another agreement with Ecuador, and finally, in 1907, a third agreement was signed with Colombia. In the years that follow, Brazil's economy encounters trouble, particularly because of competition from Asian rubber, which has been organized by the British, who succeed in taking Hevea brasiliensis seeds from Brazil to develop plantations in Asia. In 1929, the Wall Street Crash caused a worldwide depression, which further depressed the Brazilian economy. The price of coffee falls by 30% worldwide, forcing Brazil to destroy a large part of its reserves to try to maintain a decent price on the international market. In 1930, the powerful regions of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, which had previously been allied, clashed in the elections. After the victory of the candidate from São Paulo, Getulio Vargas, who was defended by Minas Gerais, does not recognize his defeat, and after a revolution and a military coup, seizes power. On the one hand, he exercises an authoritarian and repressive power towards his opponents. On the other hand, he launches reforms to modernize and industrialize the country. His mandate marks the end of the white Brazil of the so-called “Coffee Republic”, and the beginning of a popular and mixed-race culture. In 1931, the Christ the Redeemer statue was inaugurated in Rio de Janeiro. The following year, voting became compulsory, including for women, but not yet for the illiterates. In the following years, the country develops the aeronautical sector and begins to exploit oil on its territory. During World War II, Brazilian merchant ships are attacked by German submarines. In response, in 1942, Brazil declared war on Germany and Italy. Approximately 25,000 Brazilian soldiers are sent to the fronts in Italy, while 55,000 others are sent to the Amazon to harvest rubber to be supplied to the Allies. After the Allied victory, in the context of the Cold War, Brazil moved closer to the American camp. In 1960, President Kubitschek founded Brasília, a brand-new capital in the heart of the country. The following year, Joao Goulart became president, after narrowly avoiding a military coup. He reforms education to combat illiteracy, taxes multinationals whose headquarters are abroad and expropriates huge estates to redistribute land to farmers. But in the Cold War, his policies did not please the United States, which secretly supported a military coup. General Castelo Branco became president and was directly recognized by the United States. The new regime establishes a military dictatorship. The country opens up to foreign investment, which boosts the economy. The Amazonian forest is more and more threatened, on the one hand with the construction of the Trans-Amazonian road, which is intended to facilitate the exploitation of the lands in the heart of the forest, and on the other hand, in the south, the development of immense plantations of soy, which nibble at the Amazonian lands. In the 1980s, Brazil begins a peaceful democratic transition. In 1985, elections were held, and in 1988, a new constitution put an end to the military regime. Illiterate people now have the right to vote, and the ethnic and cultural diversity of the nation is recognized. Quickly, the country undergoes an important inflation. In 1994, after 38 different currencies in 2 centuries, the Real became the new official currency of the country. The following year, the country signed a free trade treaty with Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. In 2002, Lula became the first president of the left-wing “Worker’s Party”. He launched a series of reforms and programs designed to end poverty and hunger. He also finances infrastructure in the favelas to improve the living conditions of the 12 million Brazilians living there. In two mandates, he brings roughly 20 million Brazilians out of poverty. Dilma Rousseff takes over and continues the policy of her predecessor. However, she is undermined by suspicions of corruption, and by the enormous expenses incurred for the organization of the World Cup and the Olympic Games, while the country's economy is deteriorating. During her second term, the situation worsened, and she was impeached in 2016. Two years later, Jair Bolsonaro, ultra-conservative and nostalgic for the military dictatorship, comes to power. In October 2022, after close elections, he was defeated by Lula, who won a third mandate as president. Today, Brazil is a mixed nation, the result of migrations mainly from Europe, slaves imported from Africa, and people present before the arrival of the Europeans. The history of the country, which is now one of the world's leading democracies, has always been closely linked to global developments and the need for natural resources.
